News is the communication of selected information on current events which is presented by print, broadcast, Internet, or word of mouth to a third-party or mass audience.

Etymology

One theory claims that the English word "news" developed in the 14th century as a special use of the plural form of "new". In Middle English, the equivalent word was ''newes'', like the French ''nouvelles'' and the German ''neues''. Similar developments are found in the Slavic languages – the Czech and Slovak ''noviny'' (from ''nový'', "new"), the cognate Polish ''nowiny'' and Russian ''novosti'' – and in the Celtic languages: the Welsh ''newyddion'' (from ''newydd'') and the Cornish ''nowodhow'' (from ''nowydh'').

History

Before the invention of newspapers in the early 17th century, official government bulletins and edicts were circulated at times in some centralized empires.

The first documented use of an organized courier service for the diffusion of written documents is in Egypt, where Pharaohs used couriers for the diffusion of their decrees in the territory of the State (2400 BC). This practice almost certainly has roots in the much older practice of oral messaging and may have been built on a pre-existing infrastructure.

In Ancient Rome, ''Acta Diurna'', or government announcement bulletins, were made public by Julius Caesar. They were carved in metal or stone and posted in public places.

In China, early government-produced news sheets, called tipao, circulated among court officials during the late Han dynasty (second and third centuries AD). Between 713 and 734, the ''Kaiyuan Za Bao'' ("Bulletin of the Court") of the Chinese Tang Dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials. In 1582 there was the first reference to privately published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming Dynasty.

In Early modern Europe, increased cross-border interaction created a rising need for information which was met by concise handwritten newssheets. In 1556, the government of Venice first published the monthly ''Notizie scritte'', which cost one gazetta. These avvisi were handwritten newsletters and used to convey political, military, and economic news quickly and efficiently to Italian cities (1500–1700) — sharing some characteristics of newspapers though usually not considered true newspapers. Due to low literacy rates, news was at times disseminated by town criers.

Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, from 1605, is recognized as the world's first newspaper.

The oldest news agency is the Agence France-Presse (AFP). It was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-Louis Havas as Agence Havas.

In modern times, printed news had to be phoned in to a newsroom or brought there by a reporter, where it was typed and either transmitted over wire services or edited and manually set in type along with other news stories for a specific edition. Today, the term "breaking news" has become trite as commercial broadcasting United States cable news services that are available 24-hours a day use live satellite technology to bring current events into consumers' homes as the event occurs. Events that used to take hours or days to become common knowledge in towns or in nations are fed instantaneously to consumers via radio, television, mobile phone, and the Internet.

Newspapers

Most large cities in the United States historically had morning and afternoon newspapers. As the media evolved and news outlets increased to the point of near over-saturation, most afternoon newspapers were shut down. Morning newspapers have been gradually losing circulation, according to reports advanced by the papers themselves. Commonly, news content should contain the "Five Ws" (who, what, when, where, why, and also how) of an event. There should be no questions remaining. Newspapers normally place hard news stories on the first pages, so the most important information is at the beginning. Busy readers can read as little or as much as they desire. Local stations and networks with a set format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects due to time constraints. Cable news channels such as BBC News, Fox News, MSNBC, and CNN, are able to take advantage of a story, sacrificing other, decidedly less important stories, and giving as much detail about breaking news as possible.

News organizations are often expected to aim for objectivity; reporters claim to try to cover all sides of an issue without bias, as compared to commentators or analysts, who provide opinion or personal point-of-view. The result is a laying out of facts in a sterile, noncommittal manner, and then standing back to "let the reader decide" which view is true. Several governments impose certain constraints or police news organizations against bias. In the United Kingdom, for example, limits are set by the government agency Ofcom, the Office of Communications. Both newspapers and broadcast news programs in the United States are generally expected to remain neutral and avoid bias except for clearly indicated editorial articles or segments. Many single-party governments have operated state-run news organizations, which may present the government's views.

Even in those situations where objectivity is expected, it is difficult to achieve, and individual journalists may fall foul of their own personal bias, or succumb to commercial or political pressure. Similarly, the objectivity of news organizations owned by conglomerated corporations fairly may be questioned, in light of the natural incentive for such groups to report news in a manner intended to advance the conglomerate's financial interests. Individuals and organizations who are the subject of news reports may use news management techniques to try to make a favourable impression. Because each individual has a particular point of view, it is recognized that there can be no absolute objectivity in news reporting.

Newsworthiness

Newsworthiness is defined as a subject having sufficient relevance to the public or a special audience to warrant press attention or coverage.

In some countries and at some points in history, what news media and the public have considered "newsworthy" has met different definitions, such as the notion of news values. For example, mid-twentieth-century news reporting in the United States focused on political and local issues with important socio-economic impacts, such as the landing of a living person on the moon or the cold war. More recently, the focus similarly remains on political and local issues; however, the news mass media now comes under criticism for over-emphasis on "non-news" and "gossip" such as celebrities' personal social issues, local issues of little merit, as well as biased sensationalism of political topics such as terrorism and the economy. The dominance of celebrity and social news, the blurring of the boundary between news and reality shows and other popular culture, and the advent of citizen journalism may suggest that the nature of ‘news’ and news values are evolving and that traditional models of the news process are now only partially relevant. Newsworthiness does not only depend on the topic, but also the presentation of the topic and the selection of information from that topic.

New Ecology of News

“Everything we thought we once knew about journalism needs to be rethought in the Digital Age”, professor of Sociology and Communication Michael Schudson points out. Today the work of journalism can be done from anywhere and done well. It requires no more than a reporter and a laptop. In that way, journalistic authority seems to have become more individual- and less institution-based. But does the individual reporter always have to be an actual journalist? Or can journalistic work be done from anywhere and by anyone? These are questions that refers to the core of journalistic practice and the definition of “news” itself. As Schudson has given emphasis to, the answer is not easily found; “the ground journalists walk upon is shaking, and the experience for both those who work in the field and those on the outside studying it is dizzying”.

Schudson has identified the following six specific areas where the ecology of news in his opinion has changed: 1. The line between the reader and writer has blurred 2. The distinction among tweet, blog post, newspaper story, magazine article, and book has blurred 3. The line between professionals and amateurs has blurred, and a variety of “pro-am” relationships has emerged 4. The boundaries delineating for-profit, public, and non-profit media have blurred, and the cooperation across these models of financing has developed 5. Within commercial news organizations, the line between the news room and the business office has blurred 6. The line between old media and new media has blurred, practically beyond recognition

These alterations inevitably has fundamental ramifications for the contemporary ecology of news. “The boundaries of journalism, which just a few years ago seemed relatively clear, and permanent, have become less distinct, and this blurring, while potentially the foundation of progress even as it is the source of risk, has given rise to a new set of journalistic principles and practices”, Schudson puts it. It is indeed complex, but it seems to be the future.

References

Further reading

Stephens, Mitchell. "The History of News - 3rd Ed" Oxford University Press, New York, 2007.

External links

Category:Television terminology

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Name	Azerbaijani
Nativename	or (Latin script) (Perso-Arabic script)
Pronunciation
States	|speakers20–30 million
Familycolor	Altaic
Fam1	Turkic
Fam2	Oghuz
Script	Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet for North Azeri in Azerbaijan, Perso-Arabic script for South Azeri in Iran.
Nation	(North Azeri) (South Azeri) - constitutional status as a regional language (South Azeri) - constitutional status as a regional language (referred to as ''Turkmen'' in the constitution) - One of the official languages of Dagestan Republic.
Iso1	az|iso2aze
Iso3	aze
Lc1	azj|ld1North Azerbaijani|ll1North Azerbaijani language
Lc2	azb|ld2South Azerbaijani|ll2South Azerbaijani language
Lingua	part of 44-AAB-a
Map	Azerbaijanilanguage.png
Mapcaption	Location of Azerbaijani speakers as of 1991
Notice	IPA}}

Azerbaijani or Azeri or Torki (''Azərbaycanca'', ''Azərbaycan türkcəsi'', ''Azərbaycan dili'') is a language belonging to the Turkic language family, spoken in southwestern Asia by the Azerbaijani people, primarily in Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. Azerbaijani is member of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages and is closely related to Turkish, Qashqai and Turkmen.

History and evolution

Today′s Azerbaijani languages evolved from the Eastern Oghuz branch of Western (Oghuz) Turkic which spread to Southwestern Asia during medieval Turkic migrations, and has been heavily influenced by Persian. Arabic also influenced the language, but Arabic words were mainly transmitted through the intermediary of literary Persian.

Azerbaijani gradually supplanted the Iranian languages in what is now northern Iran (most notably the Tat, Azari, and Middle Persian varieties), and a variety of Caucasian languages in the Caucasus, particularly Udi. By the end of the 17th century, it had become the dominant language of the region, and was a spoken language in the court of the Safavid Empire. However, minorities in both Azerbaijan and Iran continue to speak the earlier Iranian languages to this day, and Middle- and Modern Persian loanwords are numerous in the Azerbaijani language.

The historical development of Azerbaijani can be divided into two major periods: early (ca. 16th to 18th century) and modern (18th century to present). Azerbaijani differs from its descendant in that it contained a much greater amount of Persian, and Arabic loanwords, phrases and syntactic elements. Early writings in Azerbaijani also demonstrate linguistic interchangeability between Oghuz and Kypchak elements in many aspects (such as pronouns, case endings, participles, etc.). As Azerbaijani gradually moved from being merely a language of epic and lyric poetry to being also a language of journalism and scientific research, its literary version has become more or less unified and simplified with the loss of many archaic Turkic elements, stilted Iranisms and Ottomanisms, and other words, expressions, and rules that failed to gain popularity among Azerbaijani-speaking masses.

Between ca. 1900 and 1930, there were several competing approaches to the unification of the national language in Azerbaijan popularized by the literati. Despite major differences, they all aimed primarily at making it easy for semi-literate masses to read and understand literature. They all criticized the overuse of Persian, Arabic, Ottoman Turkish, and European (mainly Russian) elements in both colloquial and literary language and called for a more simple and popular style.

The Russian conquest of the South Caucasus in the 19th century split the speech community across two states; the Soviet Union promoted development of the language, but set it back considerably with two successive script changes - from Perso-Arabic script to Latin and then to Cyrillic - while Iranian Azeris continued to use the Perso-Arabic script as they always had. Despite the wide use of Azerbaijani in Azerbaijan during the Soviet era, it became the official language of Azerbaijan only in 1956. After independence, Azerbaijan decided to switch to the Latin script.

Literature

Classical literature in Azerbaijani was formed in 14th century based on the various dialect Early Middle Ages dialects of Tabriz and Shirvan (these dialects were used by classical Azerbaijani writers Nasimi, Fuzuli, and Khatai). Modern literature in Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iran it is based on the Tabrizi one. The first newspaper in Azerbaijani, ''Əkinçi'' was published in 1875.

In mid-19th century it was taught in the schools of Baku, Ganja, Shaki, Tbilisi, and Yerevan. Since 1845, it has also been taught in the University of St. Petersburg in Russia.

Notable folklore and literary works in Azerbaijani are the Book of Dada Gorgud, Asli and Kerem, the Epic of Köroğlu, and others. Important poets and writers of Azerbaijani include

Imadaddin Nasimi

Muhammed Fuzuli

Khatai

Molla Panah Vagif

Khurshidbanu Natavan

Mirza Fatali Akhundov

Jalil Mammadguluzadeh

Mirza Alakbar Sabir

Huseyn Javid

Jafar Jabbarly

Samad Vurghun

Mikayil Mushfig

Mammed Said Ordubadi

Mohammad Hossein Shahriar

Lingua franca

Azerbaijani served as a ''lingua franca'' throughout most parts of Transcaucasia (except the Black Sea coast), in Southern Dagestan, Eastern Turkey, and Iranian Azerbaijan from the 16th century to the early 20th century.

Varieties and dialects

Azeri, also known as “Azerbaijani”, is divided into two varieties: Northern Azerbaijani and Southern Azerbaijani, and a large number of dialects. Turkic Khalaj, Qashqa'i, and Salchuq are considered by some to be separate languages in the Azerbaijani language group. Despite their relatively large number, dialects of Azeri do not differ substantially. Speakers of various dialects normally do not have problems understanding each other. However, minor problems may occur between Azeri-speakers from the Caucasus and Iran, as some of the words used by the latter that are of Persian or Arabic origin may be unknown to the former. For example, the word ''firqə'' ("political party") used by Iranian Azeris may not be understood in Azerbaijan, where the word ''partiya'' is used to describe the same object. Such phenomenon is explained by the fact that both words have been in wide use since after the split of the two speech communities in 1828.

The following list reflects only one of several perspectives on the dialectology of Azeri. Some dialects may be varieties of others.

Ardabil dialect (Ardabil and western Gilan, Iran)

Ayrum dialect (northwestern Azerbaijan; northeastern Armenia)

Baku dialect (eastern Azerbaijan)

Borchali dialect (southern Georgia; northern Armenia)

Derbent dialect (southern Russia)

Gabala (Gutgashen) dialect (northern Azerbaijan)

Ganja dialect (western Azerbaijan)

Gazakh dialect (northwestern Azerbaijan)

Guba dialect (northeastern Azerbaijan)

Hamadan dialect (Hamadan, Iran)

Karabakh dialect (central Azerbaijan)

Karadagh dialect (East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan, Iran)

Kars dialect (eastern Turkey and northwestern Armenia)

Lankaran dialect (southeast Azerbaijan)

Maragheh dialect (East Azerbaijan, Iran)

Mughan (Salyan) dialect (central Azerbaijan)

Nakhichevan dialect (southwestern Azerbaijan)

Ordubad dialect (southwestern Azerbaijan; southern Armenia)

Shaki (Nukha) dialect (northern Azerbaijan)

Shirvan (Shamakhy) dialect (eastern Azerbaijan)

Tabriz dialect (East Azerbaijan, Iran)

Yerevan dialect (central Armenia)

Zagatala-Gakh dialect (northern Azerbaijan)

Zanjan dialect (Zanjan, Iran)

Distribution of speakers

North Azeri variety

North Azeri is the official language of Azerbaijan. It is spoken in: Azerbaijan, and southern Dagestan, along the Caspian coast in the southern Caucasus Mountains. Also spoken in Armenia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia (Asia), Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.

South Azeri variety

South Azeri is spoken in Iran. Iranian Azeris often call it Türki. Specifically it is spoken in East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Zanjan, and parts of Kurdistan, Hamadan, Qazvin and Gilan . It is also spoken in some districts of Tehran city and across Tehran Province. Furthermore, some Azeri-speaking groups live in Fars Province and other parts of Iran. Most of the sources have reported the percentage of Azerbaijani-Turkic-speakers at around 19-20 percent of the Iranian population. South Azeri is also spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Iraq, Syria, and Asian Turkey.

Phonology

Consonants

!	! colspan="2"			! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"
Nasal">Dental consonant	! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"
Nasal
Stop consonant>Plosive
Fricative consonant>Fricative
Approximant consonant>Approximant
Tap consonant>Tap

# and are realised as and respectively in the areas around Tabriz and to the west, south and southwest of Tabriz (including Kirkuk in Iraq); in the Nakhchivan and Ayrum dialects, in Jabrayil and some Caspian coastal dialects; #In the most dialects of Azerbaijani, is realized as when it is found in the coda position or is preceded by a voiceless consonant (as in ''çörək'' - "bread"; ''səksən'' - "eighty"). # appears only in words borrowed from Russian or French (spelled, as with , with a ''k''). # exists in the Kirkuk dialect as an allophone of in Arabic loanwords. #In the Baku dialect, may be realised as , and and as , e.g. → , → , →

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Standard Azerbaijani

Alphabets

In Azerbaijan, North Azeri now officially uses the Latin alphabet, but the Cyrillic alphabet is also in wide use, while in Iran, South Azeri uses the Perso-Arabic script. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets for North Azeri (although the Cyrillic alphabet has a different order):

{| align="left" |valign="top"|

Aa	Аа
Əə	Әә
Bb	Бб
Cc	Ҹҹ
Çç	Чч
Dd	Дд
Ee	Ее
Ff	Фф

|valign="top"|

Gg	Ҝҝ
Ğğ	Ғғ
Hh	Һһ
Xx	Хх
Iı	Ыы
İi	Ии
Jj	Жж
Kk	Кк

|valign="top"|

Qq	Гг
Ll	Лл
Mm	Мм
Nn	Нн
Oo	Оо
Öö	Өө
Pp	Пп
Rr	Рр

|valign="top"|

Ss	Сс
Şş	Шш
Tt	Тт
Uu	Уу
Üü	Үү
Vv	Вв
Yy	Јј
Zz	Зз

|}

Before 1929, Azerbaijani was written only in the Perso-Arabic script. In 1929–1938 a Latin alphabet was in use for North Azeri (although it was different from the one used now), from 1938 to 1991 the Cyrillic alphabet was used, and in 1991 the current Latin alphabet was introduced, although the transition to it has been rather slow. If written in the Latin alphabet, all foreign words are transliterated, for example, "Bush" becomes "Buş", and "Schröder" becomes "Şröder".

South Azeri speakers in Iran have always continued to use the Perso-Arabic script, although the spelling and orthography is not yet standardized.

Nomenclature

In 1992–1993, when Azerbaijan Popular Front Party was in power in Azerbaijan, the official language of Azerbaijan was renamed by the parliament to ''Türk dili'' ("Turkic"). However, since 1994 the Soviet era name of the language, ''Azərbaycan dili'' ("Azerbaijani"), has been re-established and reflected in the Constitution. ''Varlıq'', the most important literary Azeri magazine published in Iran, uses the term ''Türki'' ("Turkish" in English or "Torki" in Persian) to refer to the Azeri language. South Azeri speakers in Iran often refer to the language as ''Türki'', distinguishing it from ''İstambuli Türki'' ("Anatolian Turkish"), the official language of Turkey. Some people also consider Azeri to be a dialect of a greater Turkish language and call it ''Azərbaycan Türkcəsi'' ("Azerbaijan Turkish"), and scholars such as Vladimir Minorsky used this definition in their works. ISO encodes its two varieties, North Azeri and South Azeri, as distinct languages. According to the Linguasphere Observatory, all Oghuz languages form part of a single "outer language" of which North and South Azeri are "inner languages".

Vocabulary

!Category	!English	!Azerbaijani
	yes	bəli
no	xeyr
hello	salam
	sağol
sağolun (formal)
good morning	sabahınız xeyir
good afternoon	günortanız xeyir
	axşamın xeyir
axşamınız xeyir
	black	qara
blue	göy
cyan	mavi
brown	qəhvəyi
grey	boz
green	yaşıl
orange	narincı
pink	çəhrayı
purple	bənövşəyi
red	qırmızı
white	ağ
yellow	sarı

Numbers

!Number	!Word
0	sıfır
1	bir
2	iki
3	üç
4	dörd
5	beş
6	altı
7	yeddi
8	səkkiz
9	doqquz
10	on

For numbers 11-19, the numbers literally mean 'ten one, ten two' and so on.

!Number	!Word
20	iyirmi
30	otuz
40	qırx
50	əlli

See also

Azerbaijani people

Historical linguistics

Language families and languages

References

External links

AZERI.org - Azerbaijan Literature and English translation

Online bidirectional Azerbaijani-English Dictionary

Alphabet and Language in Transition. Entire issue of Azerbaijan International (AZER.com), Spring 2000 (8.1)

Editorial: Azerbaijan Alphabet & Language in Transition. Azerbaijan International (AZER.com), Spring 2000 (8.1)

Chart: Four Alphabet Changes in Azerbaijan in the 20th Century. Azerbaijan International (AZER.com), Spring 2000 (8.1)

Chart: Changes in the Four Azerbaijan Alphabet Sequence in the 20th century. Azerbaijan International (AZER.com), Spring 2000 (8.1)

Baku’s Institute of Manuscripts: Early Alphabets in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan International (AZER.com), Spring 2000 (8.1)

Azeri language at Ethnologue

Azerbaijan language, alphabets and pronunciation at omniglot.com

Pre-Islamic roots

Azerbaijan-Turkish language in Iran by Ahmad Kasravi

Azerbaijan tongue with Japanese translation incl. sound file, from Internet Archive

Azerbaijan-Turkish and Turkish-Azerbaijan dictionary

Azerbaijan Language with Audio

Azerbaijani thematic vocabulary

AzConvert An open source computer transliterator program for Azerbaijan language

Category:Agglutinative languages Category:Turkic languages Category:Azerbaijani language Category:Languages of Georgia (country) Category:Languages of Iran Category:Languages of Russia Category:Languages of Turkey Category:Languages of Kazakhstan Category:Languages of Azerbaijan Category:Languages of Iraq Category:Languages of Syria Category:SOV languages

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